By Chrysovalantis Fakos
Given the current geopolitical situation and strategic interest in the ‘‘high-north’’, it is imperative to train military personnel in CBRN warfare even in cold-weather environments, argues Chrysovalantis Fakos.
In an era where global tensions are rising, the specter of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) continues to loom over the horizon. In this vein, the potential use of CBRN agents in warfare is a significant and growing threat. Known not only for their destructive nature and indiscriminate trajectory if left unchecked, but also for their capacity to ensure an absolute strategic advantage operationally, they have returned to the forefront of the international political agenda and security policy discourse. This has followed a period of regression during which military foci largely revolved around international defense missions, counterinsurgency, and counter-terrorism.
Recognizing the risks that CBRN warfare poses, states like the U.S. and multinational organizations like NATO or the EU, through the EU Commission and European Defence Agency (EDA), are seeking to address this new reality. For instance, NATO member states have embarked on joint initiatives to reinforce their CBRN defense with annual exercises like ‘Toxic Trip’ and ‘Precise Response’ being two examples. In parallel, the EDA supports the development of a joint project with real-time CBRN surveillance capabilities, and even the European Defence Fund, the Commission’s key scheme for collaborative research and development of defense capabilities, showcases great interest in defense medical countermeasures. Meanwhile, individual nations like the Czech Republic and the Netherlands have organized similar training exercises facilitating interoperability and preparedness against CBRN and WMD threats and incidents.
Nevertheless, despite there being an increasing CBRN training emphasis compared to previous periods, large-scale training operations for CBRN scenarios in cold-weather environments are not being addressed to anywhere near the same extent. Indeed, while the U.S. and Nordic states have focused on improving their operational capabilities in difficult weather conditions particularly in the Arctic region, insufficient attention has been given to the implementation of CBRN training elements. This oversight becomes very concerning if we consider the impact of extreme cold on CBRN protective equipment, the endurance of certain hazardous agents, and the rising significance of the Arctic, whose emerging wealth and strategic value bear the potential to transform this previously inaccessible space to a modern El Dorado.
High North – High Priority
In the past, the Arctic milieu was generally portrayed as unsuitable for military conflict, despite certain ‘deviations’ like the Winter War between the USSR and Finland in 1939 or the Japanese occupation of three Aleutian Islands near the Alaska Archipelago between 1942 and 1943. Furthermore, incentives for cooperation to protect its fragile environment reinforced its distinctiveness, leading to its designation as ‘High North, low tension’ or a space of ‘asecurity,’ to quote Wæver, where coordination and peaceful resolution over conflict were pursued. Yet recent events, among them Russia’s revisionist behavior and climate change, have compelled states to renew their interests and increase their presence.
Consequently, the narrow military definition of security has made a comeback in the polar discourse since all Arctic nations have increased their military operations and exercises, favoring force projection over complacency. Additionally, a remilitarization of their Arctic strategies has occurred, resulting in a spiral of insecurity and unpredictability borne out of the classic security dilemma and forcing the region’s further securitization. Not only have regional polar players like the U.S. or Russia strongly reaffirmed their commitment to the Arctic, but non-Arctic states like China are quite engaged and investing further in the region.
In this context, the Indo-Pacific theatre could also become a potential ground where warfare could involve the employment of CBRN agents in low-temperature environments. Even though the U.S., through the United States Indo-Pacific Command, has developed the Joint Pacific Multinational Readiness Center, a regional focal point responsible for enhancing operational readiness in the Arctic, further progress with respect to CBRN training is required, given the general state of stagnation following the end of the Cold War. To make matters worse, Russian investment and their capability for conducting CBRN operations in cold-weather environments have increased, and the challenges do not end there.
In particular, the combination of sub-zero temperatures with CBRN agents makes up for a complex operational scenario for two reasons. First and foremost, certain chemical agents possess low freezing points and high levels of resistance, making their deployment feasible and quite effective, while the external environment itself not only limits armed forces’ maneuvring but also impairs the capacity of the relevant CBRN equipment in identifying hazardous substances. Put differently, the incorporation of CBRN sources in large-scale operations in the cold can transform an already arduous venture into a struggle for survival.
Against a Hibernating Menace
According to the World Meteorological Organization’s Weather and Climate Extremes Archive, the lowest ever temperature was observed in the Arctic, namely -69.61 ℃ in Greenland in 1991, with average winter temperatures revolving around -34.4 ℃. This is particularly alarming since nerve agents like sarin have a freezing point of -56.1 ℃ while others like soman can vaporize at -42.2 ℃. Similarly, phosgene, a choking agent, has an extremely low freezing point of -127 ℃ while even blister agents such as nitrogen mustard can retain their liquid form in temperatures up to -60 ℃. Considering their endurance, even droplets of chemical agents mixed in the snow can be transferred to clothes or military equipment and evaporate later in a warmer setting.
Likewise, biological agents tend to be highly tolerant to freezing temperatures. Even in extreme cold, they can become inert, maintaining their properties for weeks or months before becoming again active hazards in warmer conditions. In view of the above, the persistence of such potent weapons in the polar cold represents a high risk for soldiers, with severe repercussions even long after initial deployment. Jointly, the disastrous effects of blasts from nuclear weapons can be amplified in the Arctic region due to the elevated reflectivity of ice-covered terrains. What is more, climate change can function as an aggravating factor, leading to ice thawing and causing the migration of radioactive material, furthering radiological assemblage in low-lying areas.
Considering this, the possibility of employing CBRN agents in cold weather operations presents significant concerns and should not be disregarded. Making matters worse, sub-zero temperatures not only interact with hazardous substances and render their use viable, but also undermine CBRN protective equipment’s effectiveness, adding another layer of complexity.
An Icebound Vulnerability
In fact, in extreme cold, the M50 series protective mask, a standardized type of mask in state armed forces, can crack, compromising its sealing properties and leading to the fogging of the eyepiece, thereby limiting visibility. In the same way, the drinking tube for these masks does not work in freezing conditions. Correspondingly, CBRN detectors and monitoring equipment like the AN/VDR-2 radiation detector, the Joint Chemical Agent Detector, or even the Improved Chemical Agent Monitor can malfunction or cease to operate if their batteries are not properly insulated.
Moreover, even auto-injectors containing antidotes for nerve agents (e.g., atropine) or anticonvulsant liquids (e.g., diazepam) can freeze at below -1.6 ℃ while injecting them can also be challenging due to multiple layers of clothing. In addition, nerve agent symptoms can be akin to cold weather injuries, complicating reactions and medical responses further. Ultimately, although certain studies have suggested that individuals donned with CBRN protective equipment and exposed to temperatures below zero do not present any increased risk of hypothermia, the likelihood of high heat strain, leading to unevaporated sweat and inevitably affecting insulation levels, should not be overlooked.
Thawing the Risks: Forging Resilience in the Cold
Once portrayed as an ‘apolitical’ space, disengaged from global politics, and framed on the basis of cooperation and harmonious co-existence, current events have transformed the Arctic into a strategic locus where global powers are vying for control. As the militarization of the ‘‘high north’’ is all but inevitable, the difficulties of operating in extreme cold are compounded by the emerging threat of CBRN warfare. To reiterate CPT Christopher C. Piasecki’s opinion: ‘‘We must assume that great-power competitors are capable and willing to resort to CBRN warfare even in cold weather settings.’’ In light of this, the possibility of deploying WMD in such a harsh environment calls for specialized training, readiness, and collaboration among Arctic allies and regional partners.
Furthermore, the resilience of CBRN agents in freezing temperatures poses extra challenges in which standard CBRN protocols and procedures are found wanting. As evidenced above, the cold not only preserves their potency but can also enhance their operational effectiveness. Coupled with the severe ramifications of sub-zero temperatures on personal protective equipment, detection systems, and medical countermeasures, CBRN threats in the Arctic make the line between operating and surviving even more subtle. Endeavoring to address this vulnerability, military forces should ramp up their cold weather operations while also implementing CBRN-specialized training features. Further investment in STEM education at a military level, the relevant CBRN technologies, and large-scale multinational CBRN exercises tailored to the cold are paramount in closing this critical gap. Finally, further research in the CBRN field and its interaction with the cold would contribute to countering these issues.
The danger of unconventional warfare in the Arctic region is no longer theoretical. It constitutes a hibernating menace that, if left unconfronted, could become a devastating reality. Preparing for the worst will not only ensure operational efficacy but may also serve as a deterrence, maintaining the fragile balance in a region where the stakes have never been higher.
Chrysovalantis Fakos holds a postgraduate degree in International Conflict Studies from King’s College London. His research interests revolve around critical approaches to security and defense. Previously, he worked as a Security & Defense Consultant at NCT Consultants, undertaking open-source defense intelligence research in the CBRN, EOD, and C-IED fields. Currently, he is a blue book trainee at the European Commission, Directorate of European Defence Industry and Space (DEFIS), in the sector of defence technologies and innovation. Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed are those of the author(s) only and do not reflect those of the European Union. The European Union cannot be held responsible for them.
